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This study examines aggression in soccer school programs in Quebec (U12 to U18), focusing on verbal and physical intimidation and violence. Surveying 609 elite players aged 12 to 17, the prevalence of aggression increases with age, plateauing after 14-15 years, except for verbal intimidation witnessed, which continues to rise. Players predominantly identify as witnesses, followed by victims and bullies. Significant interactions between player role and age are found for physical intimidation and violence, with discussions incorporating relevant literature.
Introduction
In Canada, particularly in Quebec, soccer has emerged as the most favored sport among children aged 5 to 14, with a substantial increase in membership within the Fédération de Soccer du Québec (FSQ) from 1980 to 2008. While player enrollment has stabilized since 2008, high school soccer sport study programs have gained popularity, with 28 certified programs reported in 2014-2015. The FSQ endorses and oversees elite programs, which have seen a notable rise in adherence and student-athlete enrollment since their inception in 1996.
Amid this growth, the study addresses the escalating issue of aggressive behaviors in society, especially in sports, with a focus on soccer. Aggression, encompassing violence or intimidation, is a persistent concern, often prevalent in both heavy-contact and incidental-contact sports. Factors influencing aggression are diverse, including personal, situational, environmental, and media-related aspects. The study aims to investigate aggression within the specific context of sport study programs for young elite soccer players, given the existing violence in the Quebec soccer landscape.
While previous studies have explored aggression in amateur sports, most of them are either European or American, lacking examination within the framework of sport study programs. Motivations for this research include the growing popularity of such programs in Quebec over the past two decades and the need to establish links between individuals’ roles and their involvement in the cycle of violence. The study intends to delve into various aggressive behaviors, such as verbal and physical intimidation, and violence in soccer, categorizing them based on age and the player’s role (witness, victim, or bully) within high school elite sport study programs.
Aggression in sports
In the realm of sports, experts have proposed diverse definitions, typologies, characteristics, and antecedents to comprehend aggression comprehensively. Maxwell (2004) defines sports aggression as any intentional behavior, outside the official rules, directed towards opponents, officials, teammates, or spectators with the intent to avoid such conduct. Shields (1999) categorizes intimidating behaviors in American football, basketball, and soccer into three scales: verbal intimidation, physical intimidation, and physical violence, each serving different purposes. Various theories, such as moral disengagement, Foucault’s discourse on sports violence, Berkowitz’s frustration-aggression theory, and Bandura’s social learning theory, aim to elucidate the mechanisms and forms of aggression in sports. Bandura’s theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and modeling, suggesting that athletes acquire aggressive behaviors through observation, reward association, and cost-benefit expectations in immediate situations.
Player’s role in peer aggression
Montes and Marquez (2007) and Russell (2008) assert that, according to Bandura’s theory, social influences, including idols, reinforcement, and contextual factors, contribute to the learning and expression of various forms of anti-social behavior in sports. Limited research explores the different roles players may adopt in response to peer aggression resulting from learned aggressive tendencies. Exposure to aggressive behaviors among young soccer players in school and sports is undeniable, posing a risk for both influence and involvement. Psychological closeness to an aggressor and group dynamics impact an individual’s perception and willingness to engage in aggressive behavior.
In certain contact and non-contact sports cultures, using aggression as a strategy is ingrained. In soccer, group factors influence the legitimacy perception of aggression. Exposure to a sport’s subculture of violence may lead players to accept and exhibit violent behavior. The close-knit nature of student-athletes in soccer sport study programs further intensifies their shared experiences.
Children and adolescents exposed to sustained violence, whether as witnesses, victims, or perpetrators, face adverse outcomes such as anxiety, depression, and aggression. Witnessing bullying in schools is linked to mental health issues, with witnesses experiencing higher levels of interpersonal sensitivity and increased hostility risk. Witnesses play active or passive roles favoring the perpetrator or victim, potentially leading to retaliation or catharsis.
The sports context mirrors other settings, where witnesses may intervene for retaliation or cathartic reasons. Understanding the cycle of violence in sport aggression requires examining player roles, particularly the roles of witnesses, victims, and bullies. The present study focuses on these three player roles due to the prevalent motives of retaliation and catharsis among witnesses of aggression.
Aggression vs. age
This research explores the correlation between age and aggressive behaviors in soccer, drawing on various studies that highlight the importance of age and experience in understanding on-field aggression. Findings suggest that as players age, instrumental aggression tends to increase, while hostile aggression decreases. Studies by Montes and Marquez (2007), Kavussanu et al. (2006), and Aktop et al. (2015) support the notion that age and experience are intertwined factors influencing aggressive behavior in soccer players. Despite soccer’s popularity in North America, there is a dearth of studies on aggression in soccer within Quebec’s sport study programs. This study aims to address this gap by providing an overview of aggression in soccer within the context of these programs, focusing on age and players’ roles as witnesses, victims, or bullies. The research aligns with the goals of the Fédération de Soccer du Québec, aiming to offer valuable insights for decision-makers involved in soccer program development and analysis.
Discussion
This study highlights a noteworthy aspect, emphasizing the high representation of female players (39%) in the sample, reflecting the proportion of federated female players in Quebec since 2005. In comparison, France has only 3.5% officially recognized female players, while 48% of the 3 million US Youth Soccer members are girls. Gender-specific results are detailed in Gendron et al.’s work (2011).
Player’s role:
This study explores aggression in sports based on players’ roles, deviating from previous research mainly focused on bullies. Following a continuum approach, similar to Trach et al.’s (2010) investigation on school bullying, the study analyzes self-reported verbal intimidation and physical violence. Results reveal higher rates of physical violence in the sports context, possibly attributed to the expected physical contact. Notably, a considerable percentage of elite players claim never to have witnessed aggression behaviors associated with the sport in the last 12 months. This finding raises questions about the players’ tolerance threshold, potential normalization of aggression within the sport subculture, concerns about tarnishing the sport’s image, or adherence to social norms. The study highlights the complexity of understanding aggression dynamics in sports.
Player’s age:
Results show that aggression prevalence increases with age but stabilizes after 14-15 years, except for verbal intimidation witnessing, which continues to rise. Player age is a significant factor linked to sports aggression. At 12 years old, players enter a critical period shaping their future sports behavior. Studies on teenage soccer players reveal that higher competition levels, motivation, and experience correlate with perceiving aggression as legitimate. Team sports athletes, particularly in elite soccer programs, exhibit less mature moral reasoning and consider aggression more acceptable than non-athletes. The rise in unsportsmanlike conduct with age may result from socialization processes in sport subcultures, seeking competitive advantage, gaining respect, and meeting performance expectations. Additional research is needed to confirm the findings on violence stabilization after 14-15 years of age.
Age vs. types of aggression:
The findings support existing literature trends, particularly in Shields’ (1999) study involving 148 athletic directors from North Carolina high schools. The study reveals soccer’s higher prevalence of verbal intimidation (VI) compared to American football and basketball. Despite Shields’ (1999) results showing a continuum of higher VI than physical intimidation (PI) or physical violence (PV) prevalence, this trend did not replicate in the present study. Players reported higher prevalence for PV behaviors than PI and VI, regardless of age group, suggesting a potential tolerance threshold for certain forms of aggression, possibly due to norms in team sports. Additionally, the study discusses the role of coaches in shaping moral behavior, emphasizing the intensive supervision in soccer-study programs that may influence players’ moral development and behaviors.
Player’s role vs. age:
The trend of decreasing witnesses, victims, and bullies is consistent across all age groups, but significant interactions, particularly between age and player’s role, reveal increasing differences in prevalence of peer influence (PI) and peer victimization (PV) among the age groups, particularly between the roles of witness and victim. This unique finding warrants further investigation, as it has not been observed in existing research, and replication studies are needed to validate the results.
Conclusion
This research project has identified a stabilization of violence levels at the age of 14-15, with verbal intimidation persisting as a witness experience. Notably, variations were observed among the roles of witness, victim, and bully in the soccer context, a distinction not previously documented. Interactions between roles and age groups indicated increasing differences in prevalence between witness and victim roles. However, the study has limitations, with caution needed in generalizing findings beyond the unique soccer sport study program context. The study recommends investigating the specificity of aggression stabilization after 14-15 years and calls for more research to validate age group and player’s role interactions in peer aggression.
The majority of surveyed players reported varying levels of aggression and violence in elite sport study soccer programs, influenced by age group and player’s role. The study emphasizes the need for preventive measures within the sport study program context, where resources and supervision provide an opportunity for intervention. Coaches are highlighted as crucial influencers, along with teammates, parents, and spectators, all requiring education on promoting prosocial behavior. Interventions, such as those initiated by the Fédération de soccer du Québec, are seen as valuable for fostering good sportsmanship and morality among athletes.
The study suggests further research on player-player aggression witnesses, their forms of involvement, and reasons for action or inaction. Strategies to limit antisocial behaviors include exposure to non-aggressive self-expression models, harsher sanctions for perpetrators, and coach and referee education on handling violent acts. The head of the Behaviour Observatory emphasizes consciousness raising, accountability, information, and prevention as means to counter incivility and violence.
The use of a self-disclosure survey with young people is noted as a distinctive feature and limitation, prompting the suggestion to compare player scores with those of coaches or parents. While the sample size is small, it represents 85% of students in the sport study program, offering insight into player experiences. Future publications are encouraged to include additional samples from different playing levels, exploring milestones, trends, and reasons behind aggression, considering the evolving roles of witnesses, victims, and bullies.
Source:
Gendron, M. & Frenette, E. (2016). Peer aggression in soccer (football) in Quebec among U12 to U18 elite players of sport study programs: differences according to age and player’s role. Staps, 112, 49-66. https://doi.org/10.3917/sta.112.0049