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This paper explores the concept of consumption beyond material goods, extending it to immaterial entities like celebrity. While the consumption of commodities and cultural goods has been extensively studied, the paper argues that celebrity is also a consumable entity, leading to a distinct economy encompassing media, press, advertising, entertainment, and security. Despite being predominantly examined from ethical and political perspectives, this phenomenon warrants attention from the perspective of market behavior it engenders.
In the realm of Anglo-American social science since the 1980s, a noteworthy focus has emerged on “celebrity culture.” In France, this term encompasses studies ranging from “popular culture” to the “media,” blending the sociology of culture with information and communication technology. A significant contrast exists between the lack of French research on various aspects of celebrity worship and the abundance of English-language publications, particularly from the United States, Britain, and Australia.
French research lags behind due to academic devaluation and compartmentalization between communication, art, and political representation studies. Scholarly critiques, from the Frankfurt School’s opposition to cultural alienation to Guy Debord’s condemnation of the “society of the spectacle,” have not facilitated sociological analysis. This deficiency hinders understanding celebrity consumption through impartial tools of investigation.
By integrating studies on consumption, particularly the consumption of celebrity through material and immaterial manifestations, a broader perspective emerges. This involves scrutinizing market behavior, encompassing media, press, advertising, entertainment, and security. Additionally, it explores the specifics of consumption modes, expanding the limits of the market economy.
The essay delineates its approach, encompassing the dependence of modern celebrity on technical reproduction instruments and how it permeates various social classes, influencing consumption patterns. It delves into the consumers’ perspective, analyzing the “desire to see,” provides economic consequences of this consumption, and explores ethical and legal constraints before concluding with political critiques of consumption.
Forms of Celebrity in the Media Age:
In Walter Benjamin’s renowned essay on “the work of art in the age of technical reproducibility,” he overlooked a crucial aspect of the impact of photography: the transformation of the concept of celebrity through the widespread use of photographic portraits. The traditional modes of celebrity shifted from biographical narratives and official ceremonies to the indefinite reproduction of facial features through photography, photogravure, radio, and sound films. The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of “star worship,” marked by the abundance of neologisms like “starlets,” “superstars,” and “fans.” Television further democratized celebrity, turning ordinary individuals into everyday objects of admiration, challenging the notion of fame as a fleeting 15 minutes predicted by Andy Warhol. This evolution prompts a closer examination of how technological advancements in image and sound reproduction have reshaped the social hierarchy in modern western societies by making certain individuals subjects of widespread visual or audio consumption.
Social Distribution of Celebrity:
History plays a crucial role in comprehending the distribution of celebrity across different social classes. Initially, celebrities were predominantly found among sovereigns and royal families, with their fame growing through image reproduction via pictures, coins, and lithography. The visual aspect became increasingly influential, exemplified by the global outpouring of sentiment following Princess Diana’s accidental death. The expansion of celebrity also impacted professions such as politicians, journalists, sportsmen, thinkers, and creators. While celebrity added value to individuals in these fields, professions centered on image, like announcers and models, saw the rise of “endogenous” celebrity created primarily through image reproduction. Technological advancements and the global spread of celebrity culture led to a democratization of access to celebrity status, resulting in less “added” value and more “endogenous” value. This shift was evident in the rise of television personalities known for their visual appeal rather than intrinsic talent. The 20th-century saw a unique form of media celebrity, notably in film actors and singers, combining elements of both “added” and “endogenous” value. Consumption patterns in these domains were marked by a distinct “desire to see,” whether through media images or immediate presence, shaping the evolution of celebrity consumption throughout the century.
Platforms for the Desire to See: Reproductions:
In the media age, the consumption of celebrity has shifted towards a primarily visual experience, moving away from traditional narratives and biographies. People, especially women, now engage in the contemplation of images or physical presence of celebrities, recognizing them through their names and accompanying information. The first category of such images includes early photographs of sovereigns, “great men,” and stage performers, reproduced widely in cards and albums. With the advent of photogravure, these images reached newspapers and magazines on a larger scale.
A second category emerged with moving images of movie stars printed on film, initially for a young audience and later for a higher-class public. Magazines specializing in reproducing stars’ photographs and disseminating news became prevalent. The development of sound reproduction introduced a third dimension, allowing the recognition of not just faces but also voices through radio, records, and sound films.
Television, especially from the 1960s, brought about a dual expansion of moving images and voices, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The 1980s saw the invention of the video recorder, enabling the replication and repetition of visual or auditory experiences. The internet and webcams in the late 1990s further amplified the global audience for celebrities, democratizing access for both fans and celebrities themselves.
The distinction between film, music, and television celebrities has become less qualitative and more quantitative, reshaping visibility access. Specialized magazines have also evolved, expanding their readership and subjects to include a more democratic range of celebrities. This quantitative growth is accompanied by a shift towards celebrity gossip, with a focus on intrusive content such as paparazzi photographs and discussions about private lives, including sex lives. This trend is evident in the explosion of specialized press over the last fifteen years.
Objects of the Desire to See: Presence:
In tandem with technological platforms for reproduction and repetition, the desire to witness celebrities extends beyond media to immediate experiences, seeking their physical presence or traces. This presence is often structured, as seen in concerts, red carpet events, book signings, or chance encounters. Scholars have likened the search for evidence of fame to religious practices involving relics, fetishes, and pilgrimages. While the desire for closeness to stars can be framed in sexual terms, it goes beyond strict consumption, delving into emotional and fantastical connections. Unlike individual image consumption, presence involves groups, whether fan clubs or collective gatherings, revealing distinct psychological and economic implications for celebrity consumption in various forms.
Economy: the Market for Celebrity:
The economic aspect of celebrity consumption, as explored by economists Brennan and Pettit in their 2004 study on “the economy of esteem,” is noteworthy. While celebrity may not be fully integrated into consumerism, the pursuit of images and presence has led to significant commercial transactions. This includes the lucrative trade of celebrity images, with magazines like Voici boasting high circulations. Additionally, there’s a derivatives market collecting royalties from objects bearing a star’s image, as well as profits from celebrity biographies. Endorsements, where stars are paid by advertisers to promote products, contribute significantly to both the stars and the businesses involved.
Consumption of celebrity images extends to waxwork museums and specialized tours. The market in memorabilia, particularly after a star’s death, is a modern equivalent of relic trade, reflecting the economic value attached to objects associated with a celebrity. Notably, the sale of autographs and court awards to celebrities for unauthorized image exploitation are crucial monetary dimensions in the celebrity economy. The legal dimension, intertwined with axiology (the study of values), completes the picture, addressing breaches of values through legal measures, as seen in court awards for privacy infringements.
Axiology: Legal and Ethical Limits:
The consumption of celebrity involves a unique dynamic, as fans form intense attachments to living personalities, often surpassing ethical and legal boundaries. While the consumption of goods may clash with theft prohibitions, celebrity consumption faces constraints, especially concerning the protection of private life. French law, notably a 1970 statute, is considered the most protective, while German law distinguishes between “absolute” and “relative” public figures. The U.S. grants stars a “right of publicity” to control their image’s commercial value. Legal limits on image diffusion in the public space reflect ethical boundaries tied to the expansion of private life and its collective value. These limits involve financial barriers, symbolic boundaries, and ethical condemnations within the scholarly world, highlighting the complexities of the world of fame.
From Idol Worship to the Consumption of Celebrities:
The discussion on the “commodification” and “fabrication” of celebrity culture, rooted in arguments from the Frankfurt School tradition, provides a basis for a critical analysis of contemporary society. It involves a convergence of right-wing criticism of mass taste and left-wing concerns about market alienation. Political, hierarchical, and religious arguments intersect, emphasizing the distance between elites and the general public. This contradiction portrays the people both as an idealized entity to protect against societal issues and as a perceived threat to subcultures. Despite this, mainstream critiques often sidestep the deeper examination of these contradictions by focusing on condemning the market or media systems. The scholarly world’s struggle to influence popular culture consumption underscores the growing divide between academia and the public. Ethical, legal, and political factors resist the increasing consumption of celebrity culture, seen as popular, iconophilic, and idolatrous practices. The relationship with idols, modernized through technological icon fabrication, echoes historical tensions seen in the worship of saints. Notably, the shift from deifying non-human figures to human celebrities, as noted by historian Peter Brown, marks a significant change in the perception of the “great singular” figures from early Christianity to the media age. Nathalie Heinich, a sociologist, explores these dynamics, drawing on her extensive research and publications on art, identity, and sociology.
Source:
Heinich, N. (2011). La consommation de la célébrité. L’Année sociologique, 61, 103-123. https://doi.org/10.3917/anso.111.0103