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Introduction:
This essay explores the evolution of American independent cinema since the late 1980s, employing the concept of media convergence as popularized by recent studies (Jenkins, 2006; Dwyer, 2010) to gain insight. Dwyer characterizes convergence as a “new media ideology,” facilitating neoliberal global market operations, with media owners expanding output across platforms to capture a growing market share due to constant technological advancements. This ideology symbolizes the relentless consolidation and cross-ownership in the media landscape since the 1990s. American independent cinema played a crucial role in this environment, assisting entertainment conglomerates in asserting control over an unpredictable film market. The essay argues that the trajectory of American independent cinema is intricately linked to this new media ideology, challenging notions of resistance since the 1990s. The discussion, influenced by Henry Jenkins’ perspective, highlights elements in contemporary American independent cinema associated with media convergence symptoms, including corporate takeovers, the transformation of independent film into an industrial category, synergies, franchises, and the emergence of “Indiewood.” The essay revisits dominant approaches in the history of American independent cinema, proposing a re-examination within the context of media convergence effects. It shows that media convergence has both benefited and harmed independent film, making it commercially available and accessible while aligning it with major entertainment conglomerates, erasing historical associations of independence in American cinema.
Before Convergence:
American independent filmmaking has a century-long history, but scholarly attention has primarily focused on the post-1980 period, particularly the “Sundance-Miramax era” coined by Michael Z. Newman. This era gained prominence in the late 1980s after the success of Steven Soderbergh’s “sex, lies, and videotape” (1989). The 1980s saw the emergence of a substantial body of quality films that provided a low-key, low-budget alternative to Hollywood, supported by institutions like the Independent Feature Project and the Sundance Film Institute. Stand-alone distributors, cable and video distributors, and major Hollywood studios’ classics divisions also contributed to creating a favorable environment for independent filmmaking.
By the end of the 1980s, the success of “sex, lies, and videotape,” the rise of Miramax Films, and the visibility of the Sundance Film Festival drove a more commercial independent cinema, often labeled as “indie.” This trend dominated the 1990s and paved the way for even more commercial “indiewood” filmmaking in the late 1990s and 2000s, featuring hits like “Good Will Hunting” (1997), “Traffic” (2000), and “Juno” (2007). While historical accounts focus on post-1990 developments, this essay suggests examining why key successes occurred in the late 1980s, placing American independent cinema in a broader context and exploring the impact of media convergence on its evolution.
The New Game:
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Hollywood cinema underwent a significant transformation as it became deeply integrated into the structures of entertainment conglomerates, marking a new phase in the history of the US and international media industries. After a period of conglomeration and later deconglomeration, a new wave of conglomerates emerged in 1989-1990, aiming for global domination of all media markets. This reconglomeration was characterized by Sony’s takeover of Columbia, the Time Warner merger, Matsushita’s acquisition of MCA Universal, and Disney’s aggressive expansion.
This period of industry change coincided with the rise of digital technology in film, with digital sound and special effects gaining prominence. Amidst this transformation, American independent cinema also evolved. Miramax, Sundance, and the success of “sex, lies, and videotape” were not isolated occurrences but symptomatic of broader changes in the media sector. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the emergence of a more commercial “indie” cinema within the context of entertainment conglomerates striving to bring diverse “filmed entertainment” to homes through cable, video, and on-demand services.
Post-1990 independent films exhibited distinct characteristics, including the presence of recognizable stars, stronger generic frameworks, emphasis on niche audiences, and the use of authorship as a marketing tool. A notable departure was the incorporation of “Grand Guignol, violence, and sex,” elements traditionally associated with commercial films, into independent cinema, leading to a reconfiguration of these elements within the context of indie cinema.
This era also witnessed the establishment of the second wave of studio specialty film divisions, such as Fine Line Features and Sony Pictures Classics, which further altered the landscape of the industry. These divisions, along with Miramax after its acquisition by Disney in 1993, played a crucial role in the commercial success and popularization of American independent cinema, challenging historical differences between Hollywood and non-Hollywood productions. The conglomerates’ marketing prowess and global distribution capabilities enabled them to tap into niche markets and elevate the profile of independent cinema, exemplified by the widespread success of films like “Pulp Fiction” in the 1990s.
Niche Contributions:
The creation of specialty divisions within entertainment conglomerates reflects a strategic shift towards increased vertical integration in the film industry. These divisions, exemplified by Sony Pictures Classics (SPC), not only strengthen integration within the film market segment but also foster synergies with other branches of the conglomerates on a horizontal level. Introduced in 1992, SPC proved advantageous for Sony by securing its presence in both mainstream and specialty markets of American cinema. The division significantly expanded Sony’s theatrical releases, contributing an additional $40 million in box office gross alongside Columbia Pictures. Moreover, SPC played a pivotal role in enhancing Sony’s library of titles, supporting its home entertainment division, and providing diverse products for marketing consumer electronics. The establishment of SPC also facilitated synergies with other Sony subsidiaries, such as Columbia Records, resulting in comprehensive commercial exploitation and maximization of certain film properties, such as the success of “Capote” with an original soundtrack from RCA, a division of Sony BMG.
Total Control of the Market:
By 1995, the entertainment industry had evolved to a structure allowing conglomerates to wield significant control in the film market, rivaling the dominance Hollywood studios had during the 1930s and 1940s studio system era. The Top 15 distributors’ share of the US theatrical market in 1995 demonstrated this control, with the seven majors holding positions 1-7 in Table 1, collectively claiming an 84.93% market share. “Major independents” like New Line Cinema and Miramax, absorbed by Hollywood conglomerates in the 1990s, accounted for an additional 9.63%. Three divisions established by studios and the major independent New Line Cinema, along with the cable television-oriented Turner Broadcasting System, secured 1.76% of the market. Consequently, conglomerated Hollywood majors and Turner Broadcasting System controlled a remarkable 96.32% of the market. Independent companies, excluding those linked to Hollywood majors, held a mere 2.46%, with the most successful independents, Savoy and Goldwyn Entertainment, commanding a joint 1.62%. Notably, the remaining theatrical market for other independents, including established names like October Films and Trimark, amounted to only 0.84%. Table 2 provides a summarized breakdown of this data by company type.
Friend and Enemy:
In the rapidly evolving landscape of American independent cinema, the once distinct identity of “indie” films has transformed into a marketable industrial category. Initially controlled by a few entertainment conglomerates, the indie film market witnessed a significant expansion and increasing dominance by major studios, challenging the very essence of “independent cinema.” Major players like Fox, Paramount, Universal, and Warner established specialty film divisions that not only distributed but also produced indie films, reshaping the dynamics of the industry.
This shift towards commercialization led to the emergence of the term “Indiewood” in the 2000s, reflecting the industry’s growing commercial success with films grossing over $100 million. However, Indiewood faced challenges such as escalating production costs, prompting the closure of several studio specialty film divisions by 2010.
Despite these setbacks, a vibrant American independent film scene persists, operating outside studio divisions and traditional distribution models. Film festivals like South by Southwest and Sundance, coupled with digital distribution through on-demand platforms and social media partnerships, have expanded opportunities for non-theatrical distribution. Filmmakers now explore alternative models, splitting rights and selling them to various non-theatrical distributors.
However, even this seemingly revolutionary approach is not entirely independent, as non-theatrical distribution channels are controlled by the same global entertainment conglomerates that dominate the Indiewood market. Notable examples include SnagFilms, an online distributor with ties to major corporations and streaming services.
In essence, even the realm of American independent cinema detached from corporate ties finds itself serving the major powers in media and entertainment. Commercial distribution, whether through traditional or non-theatrical channels, is intricately linked to the conglomerates that dictate the industry’s landscape.
Conclusion:
The impact of convergence on American independent cinema has been evident, transforming it into a segment controlled by a few global conglomerates within the entertainment industry. Despite the success of many commercially viable independent films, the profits often flow back to these conglomerates, highlighting the integration of independent cinema into the dominant entertainment sphere. Even staunchly independent productions, like SnagFilms, rely on the resources of major media companies to reach audiences. While this raises questions about the purpose of “independent” cinema today, it’s crucial to remember that its strength lies in a diverse range of voices, perspectives, and approaches. Despite challenges, media convergence can be seen as a beneficial ally to independent cinema, helping alternative expressions reach a wider audience.
Source:
Tzioumakis, Y. (2013). American Independent Cinema in the Age of Convergence. Revue française d’études américaines, 136, 52-66. https://doi.org/10.3917/rfea.136.0052