Canadian Academy Discover, Publish, Thrive
This study highlights a unique trend in the United States where Arabic, among other heritage languages, has thrived, particularly among Arab-Americans. The article is divided into sections covering migration patterns, language preservation efforts, demographic distribution, diglossia, funding for Arabic education, and future prospects. It concludes that Arabic, once Arab-centric, now transcends borders, shaping the identity of Arab-Americans as a distinct ethnic group in contemporary American society.
The Arabic language, also known as al-lughah al-‘Arabīyah, holds significance as the language of Islam due to the Quran being revealed in it. Spoken by over 300 million people across a vast region from Northwest Africa to the Persian Gulf, Arabic exhibits various dialects and influences from European, Persian, Turkish, and Asian languages. Its interaction with other languages, especially in Spain, where it’s recognized as the ‘other Spanish language,’ underscores its historical and contemporary importance. In Western Europe and Latin America, Arabic serves as a dominant language for scientific research and experimentation. Additionally, Arabic varieties outside the Arabophone world, like Maltese Arabic and Nubi Arabic, play influential roles. In the United States, the teaching of Arabic has sparked identity conflicts, with institutions like the Khalil Gibran International Academy facing controversy and accusations of religious affiliation. Despite challenges, efforts to preserve Arabic in America, particularly among Arab-American communities, continue, shaping ethnic identity and advocacy initiatives.
Regarding the entry of Arab culture into the United States, historians present two versions. The first suggests that Arab contact with America predates that with Europe; for instance, in the 8th century, the Muslim scholar al-Shaerif al-Idrisi sailed to South America. Subsequent interactions occurred through the transatlantic slave trade, with estimates suggesting significant Arab presence, including Muslims among the slaves. Notably, Estevánico was one of the first Muslims to inhabit North America. Another wave of migration occurred from Syria until the late 19th century, largely due to the collapse of Ottoman rule. The first wave consisted mainly of Syrian farmers and merchants, while the second, after World War II, saw educated Muslims arriving, particularly from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. This migration faced challenges due to political conflicts in the Middle East. The third wave coincided with events such as the Lebanese civil war and the first intifada, leading to increased Arab migration to America. Detroit became a significant Arab-American colony, fostering a distinct identity while maintaining ties to the homeland. However, it’s important to note that the Arab-American community is diverse and differs from the broader Muslim world.
The preservation of the Arabic language in America is closely tied to the patterns of Arab migration to the country. Particularly, the third wave of migration saw English become dominant among Arab Americans in places like Detroit. This wave differed from earlier ones, which were mainly Christian and driven by trade motives, leading to rapid erosion of Arabic among Christian Arabs due to their focus on learning English for business. Efforts to preserve Arabic intensified after World War II, with Arabic language courses in churches and mosques, and media initiatives like Arabic-language magazines and TV programs. Education also played a role, with Arabic programs established in schools, especially after the Bilingual Education Act of 1968. Arabic has been taught in American universities since the 17th century, with over 36 universities now offering Arabic language programs. Military institutions also contributed to Arabic language preservation efforts. Overall, the preservation of Arabic in America has evolved through historical, educational, and national security initiatives, reflecting the complex dynamics of Arab-American identity and the importance of linguistic diversity.
This section discusses the efforts of the Arab-American community to institutionalize Arabic as their language in the United States, highlighting its role in preserving Arabic culture post-migration. Since the 2000 census, the Arab-American population has grown by 72%, nearing 2,041,484 inhabitants, with 94% residing in metropolitan areas like New York, Detroit, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington D.C. Population statistics underscore the significance of Arabic in legitimizing the ethnicity in America. While the U.S. Census Bureau reports 1.2 million Arab Americans, the Arab American Institute suggests a population of 3.5 million. Demographic shifts show a doubling of the Arab-American population in Tennessee and significant growth in states like Florida and Michigan. Arabic language proficiency among schoolchildren is also notable, with Arabic ranking among the top languages spoken by Limited English Proficient (LEP) students, particularly in 19 states. Overall, demographic trends indicate the increasing influence of Arabic culture and language in the United States.
Diglossia, as introduced by Charles A. Ferguson in 1959, refers to the coexistence of two or more varieties of a language within a community. In the American context, it pertains to the use of Fuṣḥā, or written Arabic, for everyday communication among Arab Americans, leading to the development of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as a spoken dialect. This variation is influenced by the cultural diversity of Arab immigrants in the USA. MSA became mainstream in Arabic teaching in English-speaking countries in 1968, fostering its acceptance in universities. The Middlebury program, launched in 1982, emphasizes immersion in Arabic, with students committing to using only Arabic for nine weeks. MSA is regarded highly in America, taught alongside colloquial Arabic in programs like the Foreign Service Institute, blending spoken and written forms. This approach combines daily lessons in both spoken and written Arabic, emphasizing common features of colloquial speech.
The National Resource Centers (NRC) is a US Department of Education program offering grants to universities nationwide to establish and enhance international language and regional study centers, with the aim of advancing foreign language education to facilitate modernization in the USA. This initiative, known as the ‘Title VI grant’, originated from the 1965 Higher Education Act, which was later reinforced in 1980 following the launch of Sputnik I, necessitating broader foreign language coverage. While scholarly attention on Arabic in America has primarily focused on Arab-American ethnicity and identity formation, recent studies highlight its emergence as a priority program in US universities, especially since the 1965 Higher Education Act’s reenactment. Funding allocations evolved, leading to the establishment of the National Middle East Language Resource Center and subsequent research projects such as those initiated by Michigan State University (MSU) on rarely taught languages like Arabic.
Under the Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) scholarship program, 14 universities receive Title VI funding, supporting Arabic language programs. In 2022, NRC allocated USD 2,838,995 and FLAS funded USD 3,397,560 for such programs. FLAS scholarships, not restricted to language majors, aim to integrate Arabic learning across various disciplines. Meanwhile, K-12 Arabic teaching receives support through the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, particularly in Detroit for preserving transitional bilingual Arabic. Additionally, privately-run Arabic language programs, like those at Columbia University’s Middle East Institute (MEI), offer courses targeting various disciplines and formats including hybrid, in-person, and online.
Despite a slight decline in Arabic majors’ enrollment, overall program participation remains steady or increasing, with a significant rise in institutions offering Arabic programs. Government conservation efforts through NRC and legislative acts, alongside community-level initiatives like MEI, contribute to the preservation and proliferation of Arabic language education in the US, aligning with broader educational goals of fostering global competitiveness and ensuring equal access.
When Arabic is spoken in the USA, it often evokes associations with Islam and Arab identity, particularly exacerbated by the aftermath of 9/11, which fueled animosity towards Arab Americans. Arabic is perceived as the language of Muslims and their religious practices, leading to prejudice against young Muslim immigrants who are viewed as ‘foreign.’ This negative climate affects Arab-American students, particularly females, in predominantly Caucasian school districts, resulting in a sense of duality. Hostile responses, such as the Khalil Gibran International Academy controversy and panel discussions on Middle Eastern unrest, deepen suspicions toward ethnic Arab-Americans. Initiatives like the Terrorist Awareness Project (TAP) and government programs like the National Flagship Language Initiative (NFLI) and the National Security Language Initiative for Youth (NSLI-Y) aim to promote Arabic education. Despite their contributions, the full impact of these initiatives on Arabic development in the USA remains uncertain, yet they signify a shift towards recognizing Arabic as part of America’s linguistic heritage.
This study proposes practical measures for preserving and enhancing the Arabic language in the USA. It suggests examining the social repercussions of the 9/11 tragedy on Arabic sentiment. Theological and ideological perspectives are deemed essential for offering alternative views on Islam and Arabic. Migration of Arab-Americans to the USA is influenced by Middle East developments and geopolitical uncertainties, alongside Islamic rule and associated upheavals. The ‘new anti-Semitism’ links Arabic inseparably to Islam, despite its ethnic and religious distinctions. Arabic in the USA, particularly within the Arab-American community, embodies grassroots efforts toward societal equality and freedom. Additionally, the research seeks to understand where Arabic functions as a heritage language in the USA, using demographic data and governmental support for educational and social initiatives. The existence of Arabic-speaking communities across the USA underscores Arabic as a secondary home language. Various linguistic approaches, including Fuṣḥā Arabic and MSa, are emphasized in Arabic education from elementary to postgraduate levels, with federal support through agencies like NFli and NSli-y. This research suggests that Arabic and the Arab-American community can bridge cultural divides and contribute to the American identity. Embracing this opportunity may foster greater inclusivity in public spaces, albeit amidst political sensitivities. Nonetheless, acknowledging Arabic as part of America’s heritage can enrich educational and social spheres.
Arabic in the USA presents a complex duality to the broader society. While Arab identity is often conflated with Islam, historically, Arab-Christian farmers dominated the initial wave of migration. Subsequent waves saw an influx of educated Muslims, establishing Arab-American communities. Efforts to preserve Arabic language and culture include educational programs and government support. Demographic growth among Arab-Americans underscores the emergence of Arabic as a significant linguistic and ethnic presence, shaping contemporary American life. This highlights the potential for Arabic language and Arab-American identity to occupy prominent spaces in modern-day America.
Source:
Abd. Fattah, Hamzah, Wa Muna & Aminudin (2024) Arabic in the USA and the genealogy of Arab-Americans: from migration to integration, Cogent Social Sciences, 10:1, DOI: 10.1080/23311886.2024.2321712